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=='''[[Scales and Musical Modes in Celtic, Anglo-American and  English Folk Songs]]'''==
 
=='''[[Scales and Musical Modes in Celtic, Anglo-American and  English Folk Songs]]'''==
  
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Scales and Musical Modes in Celtic, Anglo-American and  English Folk Songs
  
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'''Authentic and Plagal Scales'''
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There is quite a complicated literature on authentic and plagal scales in the context of Gregorian chant. This includes a consideration of "subfinal" and "subtonal" notes and other intricacies.* [*See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(music).]
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With regard to English folk tunes (and the same is true of Celtic and Anglo-American folk melodies) Julia Bishop has a more straightforward explanation:
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Tunes can be divided into two categories according to where the ‘tonal centre’ – often the final note of the tune – lies in relation to the other notes. In tunes with a so-called ‘authentic’ range, the tonal centre lies at the extremes of the range, with the rest of the notes used in the tune being located in between. By contrast, in tunes with a plagal range the tonal centre lies more or less halfway between the lowest notes of the tune and the highest ones. [Roud, Steve and Bishop, Julia (2012) The New Penguin Book of English Folk Songs, pp. lii-liv.]
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The concepts of authentic and plagal, however, have no effect on which notes comprise a scale or mode and can therefore be discounted in the following discussion.
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Full Scales and Gapped Scales
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When analysing a folk melody we need to ascertain the number of notes in the scale. A full scale is heptatonic, or, in plain English, it has seven notes. A gapped scale has fewer than seven notes. If the scale is hexatonic it has six notes. If the scale is pentatonic it has five notes.
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Full Heptatonic Scales
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Heptatonic scales can be defined in accordance with the classification system of Glarean.
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Heinrich Glarean (in Latin Henricus Glareanus) was born in 1488 and died in 1563. His most famous work, the Dodecachordon, was published in Basle, Switzerland, in 1547 and it established him as a famous and influential musical theorist.[*] [* The Dodecachordon (in Latin) and other works by Glarean are available from the International Music Score Library Project at http://imslp.org/wiki/Category:Glareanus,_Henricus ] The following is partly based on Glarean’s ideas.
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In an octave of music there are twelve notes, separated by semi-tones. These, marked off by commas, are:
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A, A# (or Bb), B, C, C# (or Db), D, D# (or Eb), E, F, F# (or Gb), G, G# (or Ab).
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Some avant-garde composers in the twentieth century, notably the Austro-American Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) developed a so-called chromatic scale that included all 12 of these notes. Most composers, however, employ scales of 8 notes, although they may sometimes modulate to a different key without changing the key signature, or add accidental sharps, flats and naturals to give a pleasing or interesting sound or dissonance. In classical music there are three main scales, the major, the melodic minor and the harmonic minor. In Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melodies the melodic and harmonic minors are not usually used, but the major, as will be seen, is common.
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The four heptatonic musical scales most usually encountered in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk song are as follows:
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1. Ionian/Major Heptatonic Scale
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The Ionian scale, which is identical to the Major scale, was, according to Glarean, the one most frequently used by composers in his day. It has also been the most common scale among classical composers. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 1a+b Heptatonic. 
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The notes of the Ionian or Major scale are C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C’ and you get it if you play upwards from C to C’ on the white notes of a keyboard, or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing the familiar scale of “do, ray me, fa, sol, la, ti, do.” Note the distribution of tones and semi-tones in this scale:
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C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C’
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2. Aeolian/Minor Heptatonic Scale
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The Aeolian scale is similar to the modern minor scales in their melodic and harmonic forms but without the accidentals that sharpen, naturalise or flatten some of the notes of those scales. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 5a+b Heptatonic. The notes of the Aeolian scale are A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A’, and you get it if you play upwards from A to A’ on the white notes of a keyboard, or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “la, ti, do, ray, me, fa, sol, la.” Note the distribution of tones and semi-tones in this scale:
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A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A’
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3. Mixoldian Heptatonic Scale
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Sharp characterises the Mixolydian scale as Mode 4a+b Heptatonic.  The notes of the scale are G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G’, and you get it if you play upwards from G to G’ on the white notes of a keyboard, or if, in tonic-solfa, you sing a scale of “sol, la, ti, do, ray, me, fa, sol.” Note the distribution of tones and semi-tones in this scale:
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G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G’
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The Mixolydian modal scale differs in but one note from the Ionian: the seventh note of the scale is flattened to make the final interval of the scale a tone instead of a semitone, and the penultimate interval a semi-tone instead of a tone.
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4. Dorian Heptatonic Scale
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Sharp characterises the Dorian scale as Mode 2a+b Heptatonic. The notes of the scale are D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D’ and you get it if you play upwards from D to D’ on the white notes of a keyboard, or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “ray, me, fa, sol, la, ti, do, ray.” Note the distribution of tones and semi-tones in this scale:
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D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’
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There are three other modal scales. One is the Phrygian. You get it if you play upwards from E to E’ on the white notes of a keyboard or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “me, fa, sol, la, ti, do, ray, me”:
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E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E'
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Another is the Lydian scale. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 3a+b Heptatonic.  You get it if you play upwards from F to F’ on the white notes of a keyboard or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “fa, sol, la, ti, do, ray, me, fa”:
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F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F'
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Finally there is the Locrian. You get this if you play upwards from B to B’ on the white notes of a keyboard or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “ti, do, ray, me, fa, sol, la, ti”:
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B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B'
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The Phrygian heptatonic scale is rarely encountered in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk song, however, and the full Lydian and Locrian heptatonic scales scarcely appear at all.
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It was Heinrich Glarean who gave to the seven modal scales the names of Ionian, Aeolian, Mixolydian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Locrian. He believed that this was what they were called in the ancient world. He was quite wrong in this belief, but his nomenclature has nevertheless been retained.
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Note that the modes are all about the distribution of the intervals between the notes of a scale and whether these intervals are tones or semi-tones. The modes are thus not about pitch; this is determined by the Key. For example, a tune in the Key of F Major has the same Ionian mode or scale as a tune in the Key of C Major, but the pitch of the notes is two and a half tones higher.
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Gapped Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales
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In 1911 the Folk Song Journal published a collection of Celtic folk melodies. Anne G. Gilchrist assigned each tune to its respective scale or mode and wrote a note to explain how and why she had done this.* [*Gilchrist, Annie G., "Note on the Modal System of Gaelic Tunes," Journal of the Folk-Song Society, Vol. 4, No. 16 (Dec., 1911), pp. 150-153.] Immediately after this note was a gloss from Lucy Broadwood.* [*Broadwood, Lucy E., "Additional Note on the Gaelic Scale System," Journal of the Folk-Song Society, Vol. 4, No. 16 (Dec., 1911), pp. 154-156.] Both Gilchrist's note and Broadwood's gloss dealt with the question of gapped scales.
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Cecil Sharp dedicated two chapters of English Folk Song Some Conclusions (1907) to a study of the various scales in which English folk songs have come down to us. These are Chapter 5, “The Modes,” and Chapter 6, “English Folk-Scales,” and the topic is also treated elsewhere in that book. Then, in his Introduction to English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians (1917) Sharp includes a section entitled “Scales and Modes.”* [*Campbell, Olive Dame and Sharp, Cecil J. (1917) English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians, pp. xv-xviii.] This begins:
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Very nearly all these Appalachian tunes are cast in “gapped” scales, that is to say, scales containing only five, or sometimes six, notes to the octave, instead of the seven with which we are familiar, a “hiatus” or “gap” occurring where a note is omitted.
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Sharp then goes on to discuss the prevalence of pentatonic and hexatonic scales in Appalachian music at that time, drawing parallels with Scottish and Irish tunes, and invoking the aid of Gilchrist’s “very clear exposition of this matter” in her note of 1911. He also, most helpfully for later scholars, categorises the musical scale of every tune in the book in accordance with his modified version of Gilchrist’s criteria, as Pentatonic (5 note), Hexatonic (6 note), and Heptatonic (7 note).
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It is a useful heuristic and analytical exercise to do as Sharp does. Firstly, to simplify and clarify his analysis he assumes that tunes have been transposed to eliminate the sharps and flats from their key signatures. Secondly, he links gapped scales to their corresponding full scales. If we follow Sharp's method, therefore, we should not consider hexatonic and pentatonic tunes to be in separate hexatonic and pentatonic scales. Instead we should look at them as modal melodies--Ionian/Major, Aeolian, Dorian, Mixolydian, Lydian (a mode included by Sharp despite its rarity as a full scale) and (very occasionally occurring) Phrygian--in which the singers and performers have eschewed one or two of the notes that were theoretically available to them.
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This then poses the problematic question as to which notes the singers would have sung if they had used the full seven note scale. Sometimes, as will be seen, this can be deduced, but sometimes it cannot. In some cases we have to make guesses as to what the missing notes would have been. Sometimes we can never definitively know, and this uncertainty, as will be seen, leads to a number of conclusions.
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Gapped hexatonic scales in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk song are all hemitonic or, in other words, they contain a semitone. All gapped pentatonic scales, however, are anhemitonic--i.e. they contain no semitones.
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1. Ionian/Major Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales
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1.1 Ionian Hexatonic Scale (Type 1a). This is the Ionian/Major Heptatonic scale with the 3rd (E) note missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 1a Hexatonic. 
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C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)- E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be C Ionian/C Major but is Hexatonic and has no Es there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural, the tune would be C Ionian/C Major. If the Es were flattened the scale would be unviable. The tune must therefore be C Ionian/C Major with a missing 3rd.
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1.2 Ionian Hexatonic Scale (Type 1b). This is the Ionian/Major Heptatonic scale with the 7th (B) note missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 1b Hexatonic.
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C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C'
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be C Ionian/C Major but is Hexatonic and has no Bs in it there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural, the scale would be C Ionian/C Major. If the Bs were flattened the scale would be C Mixolydian. The tune must therefore be either C Ionian/C Major or C Mixolydian with a missing 7th.
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1.3 Ionian Pentatonic Scale. This is the Ionian/Major Heptatonic scale with the 3rd (E) and 7th (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 1 Pentatonic. 
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C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)- E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be C Ionian/C Major but is Pentatonic and has no Bs and also no Es in it there are three possibilities. Firstly, if they had been there, the B and the E might both have been natural to produce a C Ionian/C Major scale. Secondly, the B might have been flattened to produce a C Mixolydian tune. Thirdly, both the B and the E might have been flattened to produce a C Dorian tune.
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2. Aeolian/Minor Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales
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2.1 Aeolian Hexatonic Scale (Type 5b).
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This is the Aeolian/Minor Heptatonic scale with the 5th (E) note missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 5b Hexatonic. 
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A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE) [missing]-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be A Aeolian/A Minor but has  no Es in it there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural the scale would be A Aeolian/A Minor. If the Es were flattened the scale would not be viable. This hexatonic scale can thus be accurately categorised as an A Aeolian/Minor scale with the fifth (E) notes missing.
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2.2 Aeolian Hexatonic Scale (Type 5a).
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This is the Aeolian/Minor Heptatonic scale with the 2nd (B) note missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 5a Hexatonic. 
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A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE) [missing]-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be A Aeolian/A Minor but has  no Bs there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural the scale would have been A Aeolian/A Minor. If the Bs were flattened the scale would have been A Phrygian.
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2.3 Aeolian Pentatonic Scale (Type 5).
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This is the Aeolian/Minor Heptatonic scale with the 2nd (B) and 5th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 5 Pentatonic.
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A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be A Aeolian/A Minor but has  no Bs and Es in it there are three possibilities. If the Es and the Bs were both natural the scale would be A Aeolian/A Minor. If the Bs were flattened and the Es were natural the scale would be A Phrygian. If both the Bs and the Es were flattened the scale would be A Locrian.
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3. Mixolydian Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales
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3.1 Mixolydian Hexatonic Scale (Type 4b).
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This is the Mixolydian Heptatonic scale with the 6th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 4b.
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G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be G Mixolydian but has no Es in it, there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural the scale would be G Mixolydian. If the Es were flattened the scale would not be viable. This hexatonic scale can thus be accurately categorised as a G Mixolydian scale with the sixth (E) note missing.
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3.2 Mixolydian Hexatonic Scale (Type 4a).
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This is the Mixolydian heptatonic scale with the 3rd (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 4a.
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G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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G-(TONE)-A-(!.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be G Mixolydian but has no Bs in it there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural the scale would be G Mixolydian. If the Bs were flattened the scale would be G Dorian.
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3.3 Mixolydian Pentatonic Scale (Type 4).
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This is the Mixolydian Heptatonic scale with the 3rd (B) and 6th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 4.
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G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be G Mixolydian but has no Bs and no Es in it there are three possibilities.. If the Bs and the Es were both natural the scale would be G Mixolydian. If the Bs were flattened and the Es were natural the scale would be G Dorian. If both the Bs ad the Es were flattened the scale would be G Aeolian.
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4. Dorian Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales
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4.1 Dorian Hexatonic Scale (Type 2a).
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This is the Dorian Heptatonic scale with the 2nd (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 2a.
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D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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D-(1.5 TONES)-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be D Dorian, but has no Es in it there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural the scale would be D Dorian. If the Es were flattened the scale would not be viable. This hexatonic scale can thus be accurately categorised as a D Dorian scale with the sixth (E) notes missing.
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4.2 Dorian Hexatonic Scale (Type 2b).
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This is the Dorian Heptatonic scale with the 6th (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 2b.
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D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be D Dorian, but has no Bs in it there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural the scale would be D Dorian. If the Bs were flattened the scale would be D Aeolian.
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4.3 Dorian Pentatonic Scale (Type 2).
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This is the Dorian Heptatonic scale with the 2nd (E) and 6th (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 2.
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D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D’
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be D Dorian, but has no Es and no Bs in it there are three possibilities. If the Es and the Bs were both natural the scale would be D Dorian. If the Es were natural and the Bs were flattened the scale would be D Aeolian. If both the Es ad the Bs were flattened the scale would have been D Phrygian.
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5. Lydian Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales
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Despite the rarity of Lydian heptatonic scales in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melodies, Sharp includes the Lydian heptatonic scale, together with the hexatonic and pentatonic scales that are derived from it, in his listing of tune scales found in Appalachian music, designating them as "Mode 3."
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5.1 Lydian Hexatonic Scale (Type 3b).
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This is the Lydian Heptatonic scale with the 7th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 3b.
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F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F'
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F'
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Note that this scale contains a semitone, or, in other words, it is hemitonic.
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be F Lydian but has no Es in it there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural the scale would be F Lydian. If the Es were flattened the scale would be unviable. This hexatonic scale can thus be accurately categorised as an F Lydian scale with the 7th (E) notes missing.
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5.2 Lydian Hexatonic Scale (Type 3a).
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This is the Lydian Heptatonic scale with the 4th (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 3a.
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F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F'
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Thus the  notes of the scale are:
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F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F'
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be F Lydian but has no Bs in it there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural the scale would be F Lydian. If the Bs were flattened the scale would be F Ionian/F Major.
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5.3 Lydian Pentatonic Scale (Type 3).
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This is the Lydian Heptatonic scale with the 4th (B) and the 7th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 3.
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F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE) C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE) -F'
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Thus the notes of the scale are:
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F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F'
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If a tune transposes to what seems to be F Lydian, but has no Bs and no Es in it there are three possibilities. If the Bs and the Es were both natural the scale would be F Lydian. If the Bs were flattened and the Es were natural the scale would be F Ionian/F Major. If both the Bs and the Es were flattened the scale would be F Mixolydian.
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5. Phrygian and Locrian Gapped Scales
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Sharp makes no mention of these, presumably since he did not encounter them in the Appalachians. Certainly Phrygian and Locrian heptatonic scales are very rare in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melody. However, since the classification of pentatonic tunes in particular is problematic, clarification is needed. Phyrgian and Locrian hexatonic scales would lack either their F or their C notes. Phrygian and Locrian pentatonic scales would lack both their F notes and their C notes.
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A Phrygian pentatonic scale would consist of the following notes:
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E-(F missing)-G-A-B-(C missing)-D-E'
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This pentatonic scale could be linked to the Phrygian heptatonic scale and classified as F Phrygian; but, if the missing Fs are assumed to be sharpened the scale is F Aeolian/F Minor; and if both the missing Fs and the missing Cs are assumed to be sharpened the scale is F Dorian.
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A Locrian heptatonic scale would consist of the following notes:
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B-(C missing)-D-E-(F missing)-G-A-B'
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This pentatonic scale could be linked to the Locrian heptatonic scale and classified as B Locrian; but, if the missing Fs are assumed to be sharpened the scale is B Phrygian; and if both the Fs and the Cs are assumed to be sharpened the scale is B Aeolian/B Minor 
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Summary and Conclusions
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It is useful heuristically and analytically to follow the practice of Cecil Sharp and link gapped (hexatonic and pentatonic) scales to the full (heptatonic) scales with which they are associated.
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If gapped scales in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melodies are transposed to remove the sharps and flats from their key signatures the following is true.
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1. All hexatonic scales contain a semitone and are thus hemitonic.
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2. No pentatonic scales contain a semitone and are thus all anhemitonic.
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3. The hexatonic scales that can be linked to the Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian and Lydian heptatonic scales lack either their B notes or their E notes and the pentatonic scales lack both their B notes and their E notes.
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4. Hexatonic scales that can be linked to the Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian and Lydian heptatonic scales and that lack their E notes can be characterised as being in one possible mode; this is the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if an E natural is added to the existing six notes.
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5. Hexatonic scales that can be linked to the Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian and Lydian heptatonic scales and that lack their B notes can be characterised as being in two possible modes. This is either the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if a B natural is added to the existing six notes; or it is the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if a B flat is added to the existing six notes.
 +
6. Pentatonic scales that can be linked to the Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian and Lydian heptatonic scales and that lack both their B notes and their E notes can be characterised as being in three possible modes. This is either the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if a B natural and an E natural are added to the existing five notes; or it is the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if a B flat and an E natural are added to the existing five notes; or it is the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if both a B flat and an E flat are added to the existing 5 notes.
 +
7. Given the rarity of the Phrygian heptatonic scale in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melody it is probably appropriate to classify gapped scales that could theoretically be linked to the Phrygian heptatonic scale as linked instead to the Aeolian/Minor or Dorian heptatonic scales.
 +
8, Given the rarity of the Locrian and Phrygian heptatonic scales in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melody it is probably appropriate to classify gapped scales that could theoretically be linked to the Locrian heptatonic scale as linked instead to the Aeolian/Minor heptatonic scale.
 +
Thus gapped scales can be linked to all of the full heptatonic scales identified by Glarean, namely Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Locrian. Moreover, every pentatonic scale can be theoretically linked to 3 different heptatonic scales.
 +
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==Resources==
 
==Resources==

Revision as of 17:19, 26 September 2016

Category Editor: Dr Vic Gammon

There are many thousands of songs. There are many song collections and many versions of the same song. Where to start looking? That's the problem.

All songs currently in Folkopedia are listed on the Song Category Page

Note. Our intention is not to restrict this initiative to English Song, but to use the present headings as a starting point to view whatever develops from wherever it comes.


The Take 6 Transcription Programme

Take 6 is a major initiative from the English Folk Dance and Song Society to put online some of the major manuscript collections of folk songs and folk music. Check it out here [1]

The Take 6 Transcription Programme is an initiative hosted by Folkopedia to make the content of these manuscripts available as PDF sheet music, MIDIs, MusicXMLs and abc files. Check it out here [[2]]


Traditional Songs by Theme

It's often difficult to categorise a song. Is the song of a Thames Bargeman a sea song or an industrial one? Likewise a Fishing song. Many industrial or rural songs had a political dimension. It doesn't do to worry too much about it - the categories are really just a rough guide to get to something that fits the browser's interest and in the spirit of the Wiki might lead to somewhere altogether unexpected! Some Song Books are arranged by theme. Here are some of the common themes in folk song:

Songs of Love and Marriage romantic, unrequited, happy and unhappy wedlock, spinsters and batchelors, broken tokens

Songs of Seduction brief, bawdy, passionate and tragic

Songs of Country Life millers, blacksmiths, cobblers

Songs of Good Company drinking, carousing, conviviality

Hunting and Poaching Songs the fox, the hare, transportation

Sea Songs press gangs, men o' war, fishing & whaling, jack on shore

Soldiers' Songs the king's shilling, bloody battles

Songs of Comedy and Diversion comical tales, legendary animals, marvels

Ritual Songs folk ceremonies, mummer's plays

Songs of the Road travellers, gypsies and journeymen

Political and Historical Songs rebellion, reform, great events

Ballads

Children's Songs rhymes, game songs

Songs of Heroes and Villains Highwaymen, scoundrels, and adventurers, real and fictitious

Industrial Songs pits and mills

Traditional Singers

English Source Singers

Scottish Source Singers

Irish Source Singers

North American Source Singers

Australian Source Singers

Performance

section editor Chris Coe


This is a tricky section to think of including. One doesn't always associate folk song and 'performance' but some of the techniques applied by the traditional singers can bear scrutiny, especially by those who want to sing the same sort of songs.

The intimate fireside delivery of Walter Pardon.......

Lizzie Higgins taking a deep breath, expanding to be a 'giant' and setting forth..........

Johnny Doughty turning his cap sideways and singing the Herring's Head.....

And any one who has seen Jock Duncan perform the Two Sisters will have a vivid understanding of song delivery with gestures....


Watch this space.

--JohnnyAdams 22:46, 14 March 2007 (UTC)


Scales and Musical Modes in Celtic, Anglo-American and English Folk Songs

Scales and Musical Modes in Celtic, Anglo-American and English Folk Songs


Authentic and Plagal Scales

There is quite a complicated literature on authentic and plagal scales in the context of Gregorian chant. This includes a consideration of "subfinal" and "subtonal" notes and other intricacies.* [*See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(music).]

With regard to English folk tunes (and the same is true of Celtic and Anglo-American folk melodies) Julia Bishop has a more straightforward explanation:

Tunes can be divided into two categories according to where the ‘tonal centre’ – often the final note of the tune – lies in relation to the other notes. In tunes with a so-called ‘authentic’ range, the tonal centre lies at the extremes of the range, with the rest of the notes used in the tune being located in between. By contrast, in tunes with a plagal range the tonal centre lies more or less halfway between the lowest notes of the tune and the highest ones. [Roud, Steve and Bishop, Julia (2012) The New Penguin Book of English Folk Songs, pp. lii-liv.]

The concepts of authentic and plagal, however, have no effect on which notes comprise a scale or mode and can therefore be discounted in the following discussion.


Full Scales and Gapped Scales

When analysing a folk melody we need to ascertain the number of notes in the scale. A full scale is heptatonic, or, in plain English, it has seven notes. A gapped scale has fewer than seven notes. If the scale is hexatonic it has six notes. If the scale is pentatonic it has five notes.

Full Heptatonic Scales Heptatonic scales can be defined in accordance with the classification system of Glarean. Heinrich Glarean (in Latin Henricus Glareanus) was born in 1488 and died in 1563. His most famous work, the Dodecachordon, was published in Basle, Switzerland, in 1547 and it established him as a famous and influential musical theorist.[*] [* The Dodecachordon (in Latin) and other works by Glarean are available from the International Music Score Library Project at http://imslp.org/wiki/Category:Glareanus,_Henricus ] The following is partly based on Glarean’s ideas. In an octave of music there are twelve notes, separated by semi-tones. These, marked off by commas, are: A, A# (or Bb), B, C, C# (or Db), D, D# (or Eb), E, F, F# (or Gb), G, G# (or Ab). Some avant-garde composers in the twentieth century, notably the Austro-American Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) developed a so-called chromatic scale that included all 12 of these notes. Most composers, however, employ scales of 8 notes, although they may sometimes modulate to a different key without changing the key signature, or add accidental sharps, flats and naturals to give a pleasing or interesting sound or dissonance. In classical music there are three main scales, the major, the melodic minor and the harmonic minor. In Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melodies the melodic and harmonic minors are not usually used, but the major, as will be seen, is common. The four heptatonic musical scales most usually encountered in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk song are as follows: 1. Ionian/Major Heptatonic Scale The Ionian scale, which is identical to the Major scale, was, according to Glarean, the one most frequently used by composers in his day. It has also been the most common scale among classical composers. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 1a+b Heptatonic. The notes of the Ionian or Major scale are C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C’ and you get it if you play upwards from C to C’ on the white notes of a keyboard, or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing the familiar scale of “do, ray me, fa, sol, la, ti, do.” Note the distribution of tones and semi-tones in this scale:

C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C’

2. Aeolian/Minor Heptatonic Scale The Aeolian scale is similar to the modern minor scales in their melodic and harmonic forms but without the accidentals that sharpen, naturalise or flatten some of the notes of those scales. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 5a+b Heptatonic. The notes of the Aeolian scale are A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A’, and you get it if you play upwards from A to A’ on the white notes of a keyboard, or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “la, ti, do, ray, me, fa, sol, la.” Note the distribution of tones and semi-tones in this scale: A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A’

3. Mixoldian Heptatonic Scale Sharp characterises the Mixolydian scale as Mode 4a+b Heptatonic. The notes of the scale are G, A, B, C, D, E, F, G’, and you get it if you play upwards from G to G’ on the white notes of a keyboard, or if, in tonic-solfa, you sing a scale of “sol, la, ti, do, ray, me, fa, sol.” Note the distribution of tones and semi-tones in this scale: G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G’ The Mixolydian modal scale differs in but one note from the Ionian: the seventh note of the scale is flattened to make the final interval of the scale a tone instead of a semitone, and the penultimate interval a semi-tone instead of a tone.

4. Dorian Heptatonic Scale Sharp characterises the Dorian scale as Mode 2a+b Heptatonic. The notes of the scale are D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D’ and you get it if you play upwards from D to D’ on the white notes of a keyboard, or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “ray, me, fa, sol, la, ti, do, ray.” Note the distribution of tones and semi-tones in this scale: D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’ There are three other modal scales. One is the Phrygian. You get it if you play upwards from E to E’ on the white notes of a keyboard or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “me, fa, sol, la, ti, do, ray, me”: E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E' Another is the Lydian scale. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 3a+b Heptatonic. You get it if you play upwards from F to F’ on the white notes of a keyboard or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “fa, sol, la, ti, do, ray, me, fa”: F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F' Finally there is the Locrian. You get this if you play upwards from B to B’ on the white notes of a keyboard or if, in tonic sol-fa, you sing a scale of “ti, do, ray, me, fa, sol, la, ti”: B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B' The Phrygian heptatonic scale is rarely encountered in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk song, however, and the full Lydian and Locrian heptatonic scales scarcely appear at all. It was Heinrich Glarean who gave to the seven modal scales the names of Ionian, Aeolian, Mixolydian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Locrian. He believed that this was what they were called in the ancient world. He was quite wrong in this belief, but his nomenclature has nevertheless been retained. Note that the modes are all about the distribution of the intervals between the notes of a scale and whether these intervals are tones or semi-tones. The modes are thus not about pitch; this is determined by the Key. For example, a tune in the Key of F Major has the same Ionian mode or scale as a tune in the Key of C Major, but the pitch of the notes is two and a half tones higher.

Gapped Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales In 1911 the Folk Song Journal published a collection of Celtic folk melodies. Anne G. Gilchrist assigned each tune to its respective scale or mode and wrote a note to explain how and why she had done this.* [*Gilchrist, Annie G., "Note on the Modal System of Gaelic Tunes," Journal of the Folk-Song Society, Vol. 4, No. 16 (Dec., 1911), pp. 150-153.] Immediately after this note was a gloss from Lucy Broadwood.* [*Broadwood, Lucy E., "Additional Note on the Gaelic Scale System," Journal of the Folk-Song Society, Vol. 4, No. 16 (Dec., 1911), pp. 154-156.] Both Gilchrist's note and Broadwood's gloss dealt with the question of gapped scales. Cecil Sharp dedicated two chapters of English Folk Song Some Conclusions (1907) to a study of the various scales in which English folk songs have come down to us. These are Chapter 5, “The Modes,” and Chapter 6, “English Folk-Scales,” and the topic is also treated elsewhere in that book. Then, in his Introduction to English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians (1917) Sharp includes a section entitled “Scales and Modes.”* [*Campbell, Olive Dame and Sharp, Cecil J. (1917) English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians, pp. xv-xviii.] This begins: Very nearly all these Appalachian tunes are cast in “gapped” scales, that is to say, scales containing only five, or sometimes six, notes to the octave, instead of the seven with which we are familiar, a “hiatus” or “gap” occurring where a note is omitted. Sharp then goes on to discuss the prevalence of pentatonic and hexatonic scales in Appalachian music at that time, drawing parallels with Scottish and Irish tunes, and invoking the aid of Gilchrist’s “very clear exposition of this matter” in her note of 1911. He also, most helpfully for later scholars, categorises the musical scale of every tune in the book in accordance with his modified version of Gilchrist’s criteria, as Pentatonic (5 note), Hexatonic (6 note), and Heptatonic (7 note). It is a useful heuristic and analytical exercise to do as Sharp does. Firstly, to simplify and clarify his analysis he assumes that tunes have been transposed to eliminate the sharps and flats from their key signatures. Secondly, he links gapped scales to their corresponding full scales. If we follow Sharp's method, therefore, we should not consider hexatonic and pentatonic tunes to be in separate hexatonic and pentatonic scales. Instead we should look at them as modal melodies--Ionian/Major, Aeolian, Dorian, Mixolydian, Lydian (a mode included by Sharp despite its rarity as a full scale) and (very occasionally occurring) Phrygian--in which the singers and performers have eschewed one or two of the notes that were theoretically available to them. This then poses the problematic question as to which notes the singers would have sung if they had used the full seven note scale. Sometimes, as will be seen, this can be deduced, but sometimes it cannot. In some cases we have to make guesses as to what the missing notes would have been. Sometimes we can never definitively know, and this uncertainty, as will be seen, leads to a number of conclusions.

Gapped hexatonic scales in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk song are all hemitonic or, in other words, they contain a semitone. All gapped pentatonic scales, however, are anhemitonic--i.e. they contain no semitones.

1. Ionian/Major Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales 1.1 Ionian Hexatonic Scale (Type 1a). This is the Ionian/Major Heptatonic scale with the 3rd (E) note missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 1a Hexatonic. C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)- E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C’ Thus the notes of the scale are: C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be C Ionian/C Major but is Hexatonic and has no Es there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural, the tune would be C Ionian/C Major. If the Es were flattened the scale would be unviable. The tune must therefore be C Ionian/C Major with a missing 3rd. 1.2 Ionian Hexatonic Scale (Type 1b). This is the Ionian/Major Heptatonic scale with the 7th (B) note missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 1b Hexatonic. 

C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C’

Thus the notes of the scale are: C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C' If a tune transposes to what seems to be C Ionian/C Major but is Hexatonic and has no Bs in it there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural, the scale would be C Ionian/C Major. If the Bs were flattened the scale would be C Mixolydian. The tune must therefore be either C Ionian/C Major or C Mixolydian with a missing 7th. 1.3 Ionian Pentatonic Scale. This is the Ionian/Major Heptatonic scale with the 3rd (E) and 7th (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 1 Pentatonic. C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)- E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C’ Thus the notes of the scale are: C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be C Ionian/C Major but is Pentatonic and has no Bs and also no Es in it there are three possibilities. Firstly, if they had been there, the B and the E might both have been natural to produce a C Ionian/C Major scale. Secondly, the B might have been flattened to produce a C Mixolydian tune. Thirdly, both the B and the E might have been flattened to produce a C Dorian tune.

2. Aeolian/Minor Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales 2.1 Aeolian Hexatonic Scale (Type 5b). This is the Aeolian/Minor Heptatonic scale with the 5th (E) note missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 5b Hexatonic. A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE) [missing]-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A Thus the notes of the scale are: A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A If a tune transposes to what seems to be A Aeolian/A Minor but has no Es in it there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural the scale would be A Aeolian/A Minor. If the Es were flattened the scale would not be viable. This hexatonic scale can thus be accurately categorised as an A Aeolian/Minor scale with the fifth (E) notes missing. 2.2 Aeolian Hexatonic Scale (Type 5a). This is the Aeolian/Minor Heptatonic scale with the 2nd (B) note missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 5a Hexatonic. A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE) [missing]-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A Thus the notes of the scale are: A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A If a tune transposes to what seems to be A Aeolian/A Minor but has no Bs there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural the scale would have been A Aeolian/A Minor. If the Bs were flattened the scale would have been A Phrygian. 2.3 Aeolian Pentatonic Scale (Type 5). This is the Aeolian/Minor Heptatonic scale with the 2nd (B) and 5th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as 5 Pentatonic. 

A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A’

Thus the notes of the scale are: A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be A Aeolian/A Minor but has no Bs and Es in it there are three possibilities. If the Es and the Bs were both natural the scale would be A Aeolian/A Minor. If the Bs were flattened and the Es were natural the scale would be A Phrygian. If both the Bs and the Es were flattened the scale would be A Locrian.

3. Mixolydian Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales 3.1 Mixolydian Hexatonic Scale (Type 4b). This is the Mixolydian Heptatonic scale with the 6th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 4b. G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’ Thus the notes of the scale are: G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be G Mixolydian but has no Es in it, there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural the scale would be G Mixolydian. If the Es were flattened the scale would not be viable. This hexatonic scale can thus be accurately categorised as a G Mixolydian scale with the sixth (E) note missing. 3.2 Mixolydian Hexatonic Scale (Type 4a). This is the Mixolydian heptatonic scale with the 3rd (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 4a. G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’ Thus the notes of the scale are: G-(TONE)-A-(!.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be G Mixolydian but has no Bs in it there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural the scale would be G Mixolydian. If the Bs were flattened the scale would be G Dorian. 3.3 Mixolydian Pentatonic Scale (Type 4). This is the Mixolydian Heptatonic scale with the 3rd (B) and 6th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 4. G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F -(TONE)-G’ Thus the notes of the scale are: G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be G Mixolydian but has no Bs and no Es in it there are three possibilities.. If the Bs and the Es were both natural the scale would be G Mixolydian. If the Bs were flattened and the Es were natural the scale would be G Dorian. If both the Bs ad the Es were flattened the scale would be G Aeolian.

4. Dorian Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales 4.1 Dorian Hexatonic Scale (Type 2a). This is the Dorian Heptatonic scale with the 2nd (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 2a. D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’ Thus the notes of the scale are: D-(1.5 TONES)-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be D Dorian, but has no Es in it there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural the scale would be D Dorian. If the Es were flattened the scale would not be viable. This hexatonic scale can thus be accurately categorised as a D Dorian scale with the sixth (E) notes missing. 4.2 Dorian Hexatonic Scale (Type 2b). This is the Dorian Heptatonic scale with the 6th (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 2b. D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’ Thus the notes of the scale are: D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be D Dorian, but has no Bs in it there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural the scale would be D Dorian. If the Bs were flattened the scale would be D Aeolian. 4.3 Dorian Pentatonic Scale (Type 2). This is the Dorian Heptatonic scale with the 2nd (E) and 6th (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 2. D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D’ Thus the notes of the scale are: D-(1.5 TONES)-F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D’ If a tune transposes to what seems to be D Dorian, but has no Es and no Bs in it there are three possibilities. If the Es and the Bs were both natural the scale would be D Dorian. If the Es were natural and the Bs were flattened the scale would be D Aeolian. If both the Es ad the Bs were flattened the scale would have been D Phrygian.

5. Lydian Hexatonic and Pentatonic Scales Despite the rarity of Lydian heptatonic scales in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melodies, Sharp includes the Lydian heptatonic scale, together with the hexatonic and pentatonic scales that are derived from it, in his listing of tune scales found in Appalachian music, designating them as "Mode 3." 5.1 Lydian Hexatonic Scale (Type 3b). This is the Lydian Heptatonic scale with the 7th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 3b. F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-F' Thus the notes of the scale are: F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F' Note that this scale contains a semitone, or, in other words, it is hemitonic. If a tune transposes to what seems to be F Lydian but has no Es in it there is only one possibility. If the Es were natural the scale would be F Lydian. If the Es were flattened the scale would be unviable. This hexatonic scale can thus be accurately categorised as an F Lydian scale with the 7th (E) notes missing.

5.2 Lydian Hexatonic Scale (Type 3a). This is the Lydian Heptatonic scale with the 4th (B) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 3a. F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F' Thus the notes of the scale are: F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E-(SEMI-TONE)-F' If a tune transposes to what seems to be F Lydian but has no Bs in it there are two possibilities. If the Bs were natural the scale would be F Lydian. If the Bs were flattened the scale would be F Ionian/F Major. 5.3 Lydian Pentatonic Scale (Type 3). This is the Lydian Heptatonic scale with the 4th (B) and the 7th (E) notes missing. Sharp characterises this scale as Mode 3. F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(TONE)-B [missing]-(SEMI-TONE) C-(TONE)-D-(TONE)-E [missing]-(SEMI-TONE) -F' Thus the notes of the scale are: F-(TONE)-G-(TONE)-A-(1.5 TONES)-C-(TONE)-D-(1.5 TONES)-F' If a tune transposes to what seems to be F Lydian, but has no Bs and no Es in it there are three possibilities. If the Bs and the Es were both natural the scale would be F Lydian. If the Bs were flattened and the Es were natural the scale would be F Ionian/F Major. If both the Bs and the Es were flattened the scale would be F Mixolydian.

5. Phrygian and Locrian Gapped Scales Sharp makes no mention of these, presumably since he did not encounter them in the Appalachians. Certainly Phrygian and Locrian heptatonic scales are very rare in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melody. However, since the classification of pentatonic tunes in particular is problematic, clarification is needed. Phyrgian and Locrian hexatonic scales would lack either their F or their C notes. Phrygian and Locrian pentatonic scales would lack both their F notes and their C notes. A Phrygian pentatonic scale would consist of the following notes: E-(F missing)-G-A-B-(C missing)-D-E' This pentatonic scale could be linked to the Phrygian heptatonic scale and classified as F Phrygian; but, if the missing Fs are assumed to be sharpened the scale is F Aeolian/F Minor; and if both the missing Fs and the missing Cs are assumed to be sharpened the scale is F Dorian. A Locrian heptatonic scale would consist of the following notes: B-(C missing)-D-E-(F missing)-G-A-B' This pentatonic scale could be linked to the Locrian heptatonic scale and classified as B Locrian; but, if the missing Fs are assumed to be sharpened the scale is B Phrygian; and if both the Fs and the Cs are assumed to be sharpened the scale is B Aeolian/B Minor

Summary and Conclusions It is useful heuristically and analytically to follow the practice of Cecil Sharp and link gapped (hexatonic and pentatonic) scales to the full (heptatonic) scales with which they are associated. If gapped scales in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melodies are transposed to remove the sharps and flats from their key signatures the following is true. 1. All hexatonic scales contain a semitone and are thus hemitonic. 2. No pentatonic scales contain a semitone and are thus all anhemitonic. 3. The hexatonic scales that can be linked to the Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian and Lydian heptatonic scales lack either their B notes or their E notes and the pentatonic scales lack both their B notes and their E notes. 4. Hexatonic scales that can be linked to the Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian and Lydian heptatonic scales and that lack their E notes can be characterised as being in one possible mode; this is the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if an E natural is added to the existing six notes. 5. Hexatonic scales that can be linked to the Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian and Lydian heptatonic scales and that lack their B notes can be characterised as being in two possible modes. This is either the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if a B natural is added to the existing six notes; or it is the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if a B flat is added to the existing six notes. 6. Pentatonic scales that can be linked to the Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian and Lydian heptatonic scales and that lack both their B notes and their E notes can be characterised as being in three possible modes. This is either the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if a B natural and an E natural are added to the existing five notes; or it is the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if a B flat and an E natural are added to the existing five notes; or it is the same mode as the heptatonic scale created if both a B flat and an E flat are added to the existing 5 notes. 7. Given the rarity of the Phrygian heptatonic scale in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melody it is probably appropriate to classify gapped scales that could theoretically be linked to the Phrygian heptatonic scale as linked instead to the Aeolian/Minor or Dorian heptatonic scales. 8, Given the rarity of the Locrian and Phrygian heptatonic scales in Celtic, Anglo-American and English folk melody it is probably appropriate to classify gapped scales that could theoretically be linked to the Locrian heptatonic scale as linked instead to the Aeolian/Minor heptatonic scale. Thus gapped scales can be linked to all of the full heptatonic scales identified by Glarean, namely Ionian/Major, Aeolian/Minor, Mixolydian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian and Locrian. Moreover, every pentatonic scale can be theoretically linked to 3 different heptatonic scales.

Resources

Recordings

Record labels produce recordings of both song and instrumental music, and a list of these can be found here

Books & Bibliographies

Books of and about folk songs abound and seem to increase at an exponential rate. It is ironic that computerisation and digitalisation, which make this site possible, also make it much easier and cheaper to publish new books. In addition, many rare and inaccessible books from the past have been scanned and placed on the web in recent years, which has helped more and more people to find songs and contribute to scholarship and discussion. Probably the most complete and recent listing of books is the one given immediately below. After that, there follows a short selection of some important books.

Bibliographies

English Folk Song Bibliography: An Introductory Bibliography Based on the Holdings of the Vaughan Williams Memorial Library, Third Edition, edited by David Atkinson

  • Margaret Dean-Smith, A guide to English Folk Song Collections 1822 - 1952, Liverpool: University Press of Liverpool, in Association with EFDSS (1954) - An earlier attempt at a bibliography but with substantial descriptions and publishing details of the books as well as an alphabetical index of the songs included in these collections. Still a valuable reference - particularly when used in conjunction with the Roud index.


Books

Probably the most important thing to know is what is available and in print now. The most up to date list is probably to be found at the Traditional Song Forum web site in the form of a list by publisher Dave Herron. Look on the library pages for Dave Herron's Chapbook.


Below is the place to put detail of ALL the folksong books that ever there were.


Indexes

The site also gives you access to the Roud Index, compiled by Steve Roud.

The Roud Folk Song Index is a database of 143,000+ references to songs that have been collected from oral tradition in the English language from all over the world.
It is the most important finding aid for traditional song ever compiled, and not even the most casual researcher can afford to do without it.

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